Research - Media Theories
What are the media theories?
Media theory focuses on the effects that can come from utilizing new media, like new textual experiences and new ways of representing the world. One effect is the changing relationship between subjects and technologies, especially in relation to identity and community.
Here is a video I watched about the evolution of media theories, I found it really interesting so make sure to give it a watch.
Uses and Gratification Theory
Jay G. Blumler and Elihu Katz devised the 'Uses and Gratification' theory in 1974. This approach states that we as consumers consciously choose what we want to see in media, depending on our needs and preferences. There are four given reasons for our choices: Information and education: the viewer chooses something to watch when they want information. This is usually the news or a documentary.
Entertainment and escapism: arguably the most common reason for consuming media. The viewer wishes to be entertained. Escapism refers to them wanting to escape their reality through the form of entertainment. Some examples of this are playing video games, or watching fictional films and TV shows.
Media theory focuses on the effects that can come from utilizing new media, like new textual experiences and new ways of representing the world. One effect is the changing relationship between subjects and technologies, especially in relation to identity and community.
Here is a video I watched about the evolution of media theories, I found it really interesting so make sure to give it a watch.
Uses and Gratification Theory
Jay G. Blumler and Elihu Katz devised the 'Uses and Gratification' theory in 1974. This approach states that we as consumers consciously choose what we want to see in media, depending on our needs and preferences. There are four given reasons for our choices: Information and education: the viewer chooses something to watch when they want information. This is usually the news or a documentary.
Entertainment and escapism: arguably the most common reason for consuming media. The viewer wishes to be entertained. Escapism refers to them wanting to escape their reality through the form of entertainment. Some examples of this are playing video games, or watching fictional films and TV shows.
Personal identity: this is when the viewer chooses to consume a piece of media based on the fact that they can relate to one or more of the characters. It helps them form their identity and feel a sense of comfort.
Integration and social interaction: this is when we consume media for the sole purpose of being able to relate to others about it. For example, if everybody at school is watching a new TV show, you are likely to go and watch it just to be able to speak to everyone about it.
Integration and social interaction: this is when we consume media for the sole purpose of being able to relate to others about it. For example, if everybody at school is watching a new TV show, you are likely to go and watch it just to be able to speak to everyone about it.
10 More Media Theories
1 - Semiotics - Roland Barthes
(advertising, music videos, newspapers, magazines, online media)
(advertising, music videos, newspapers, magazines, online media)
Media products communicate a complex series of meanings to their audiences through a range of visual codes and technical codes. These codes can broadly be divided in to proairetic, symbolic, hermeneutic, referential, and so on.
After many years of codes being repeated, their meaning can become generally agreed upon by society. For example, a scar on the face of a character can function as a hermeneutic code, indicating to the audience that they are ‘the villain’.
Barthes also considered the importance of myths. Myths are stories and legends, which are passed down from generation to generation. They teach us why the world is the way it is, and also offer clues and instructions on how we behave. For example, in Greek myth of Narcissus, Narcissus was a particularly beautiful young man who turned down every woman as they didn't live up to his expectations. After he ignored Echo for so long, she faded away in to nothing, and became just a voice in the breeze. This is where echoes come from. Narcissus was punished, and was led to fall in love with his own reflection. When he realized that he could consummate his love with himself, he killed himself. This myth warns the listener to not be so self-obsessed, and it is even where we get the term 'narcissist' from
For Barthes, the myths of modern society can be found in media products. Whereas previously we would learn from legends, now we are more likely to discover social norms and values from advertising. For Barthes, a myth is a widely held belief which is reinforced and emphasized through media language. This concept is closely related to hegemony and stereotypes.
2 - Narratology - Tzvetan Todorov
(television)
• Todorov's theory of narrative equilibrium is based around a three act structure. Firstly, a state of balance or equilibrium is established. This balance is disrupted or broken in some way, which leads to a liminal period or period of disruption. This second stage typically takes up the majority of a narrative. Finally, a typical narrative will conclude with a partial restoration of the equilibrium or new equilibrium, which will see the world of the narrative return to some sense of normality.
• Therefore, Todorov suggests that narratives move from one state of equilibrium to another, with the majority of a narrative focusing on conflict or imbalance.
• This structure can be summed up as:
• Equilibrium
• Disequilibrium
• Partial restoration of the equilibrium
• All narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement from one state of equilibrium to another
• The idea that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of imbalance or disequilibrium
• The way in which narratives are resolved can have particular ideological significance.
3 - Genre theory - Steve Neale
(television)
• Producers rely on audience's desire to see both repetition and difference of genre conventions: seeking out the familiar, while also seeking something vaguely new and different.
• Over time, genres change (generic fluidity), combine with one another (generic hybridity) and form entirely new genres and subgenres
• Genres are useful for producers from an industrial perspective, as they allow for the precise and specific targeting of certain specific audiences.
4 - Structuralism - Claude Lévi-Strauss
(Advertising, music videos, newspapers, television, magazines, online media)
• All media products have an underlying structure, and knowledge of this structure helps us to analyze them.
• One of the fundamental ways that we make sense of not only media products but our lives in general is through the idea of binary oppositions, or two diametrically opposed concepts that end up defining each other (good luck trying to explain to someone the concept of day without using the concept of night!)
• Binary oppositions and the way they are used by producers in narratives demonstrate their ideological significance.
5 - Postmodernism - Jean Baudrillard
(television, online media)
• In postmodern culture the boundaries between the ‘real’ world and the world of the media have collapsed and that it is no longer possible to distinguish between what is reality and what is simulation. In fact, it really doesn't matter which is which!
• Therefore, in this postmodern age of simulacra, audiences are constantly bombarded with images which no longer refer to anything ‘real’
• Because of this, we are now in a situation that media images have come to seem more ‘real’ than the reality they supposedly represent. This concept is referred to as 'hyperreality'.
6 - Theories of representation - Stuart Hall
(advertising, music videos, newspapers, television, online media)
• Representations are constructed through media language, and reflect the ideological perspective of the producer
• The relationship between concepts and signs is governed by codes
• Stereotyping, as a form of representation, reduces people to a few simple characteristics or traits. However, stereotyping is useful, as it allows producers to easily construct media products, and audiences to easily decode them.
• Stereotyping tends to occur where there are inequalities of power, as subordinate or excluded groups are constructed as different or ‘other’ (e.g. through ethnocentrism).
7 - Theories of identity - David Gauntlett
(advertising, music videos, magazines, online media)
• Audiences are not passive, and media products allow the audience to construct their own identities
• Audiences can pick and mix which ideologies suit them, and completely ignore the elements of the product which they do not agree with in a process of negotiation similar to the one suggested by Stuart Hall.
8 - Feminist theory - Liesbet van Zoonen
(advertising, music videos, television, magazines)
• Gender is constructed through codes and conventions of media products, and the idea of what is male and what is female changes over time
• Women’s bodies are used in media products as a spectacle for heterosexual male audiences, which reinforces patriarchal hegemony.
9 - Theories of gender performativity - Judith Butler
(television, magazines, online)
• Identity is a performance, and it is constructed through a series of acts and 'expressions' that we perform every day.
• While there are biological differences dictated by sex, our gender is defined through this series of acts. These may include the ways we walk, talk, dress, and so on
• Therefore, there is no gender identity behind these expressions of gender
• Gender performativity is not a singular act, but a repetition and a ritual. It is outlined and reinforced through dominant patriarchal ideologies.
10 - Theories around ethnicity and postcolonial theory - Paul Gilroy
(advertising, music videos, online media)
• Postcolonialism is the study of the impact that being under direct rule has had on former colonies. For example, despite being a tiny island, Britain colonized and declared ownership of many countries, including India and Australia.
• These ideas and attitudes continue to shape contemporary attitudes to race and ethnicity in the postcolonial era
• These postcolonial attitudes have constructed racial hierarchies in our society, where, for example, white people are by and large given more positive and important roles than BME people
• Media producers are also guilty of using binary oppositions to reinforce BME people and characters as 'others'.
Conclusion
So, as a whole researching media theories has helped further my understanding on the media industry and how different theories impact peoples thoughts and feelings. This will help me when creating my documentary because I now know about different media theories, so I can properly implement them into my product for example semiotics. I will take this information onboard with me because it is very helpful. I also believe these theories will directly impact the type of audience that will like and enjoy your content, such as old people/young people etc. Uses and Gratification theory applies to my documentary because people will watch my documentary to learn more about content creation in Sunderland, as well as further their understanding on the area. Theories of representation also links to my product because Sunderland culture links to local identity and representation, which will be expressed in my documentary. As well as this, theories of ethnicity also links to Sunderland Culture for the similar reasons, just this theory links more to religion and lifestyle. Theory of identity will also fit into my documentary because my documentary will get you to consider your local identity, and whether or not it restricts or enhances your creativity. Due to my documentary being about content creation Postmodernism also ties into my idea because I will talk about social media within the area and common misconceptions about Sunderland.
2 - Narratology - Tzvetan Todorov
(television)
• Todorov's theory of narrative equilibrium is based around a three act structure. Firstly, a state of balance or equilibrium is established. This balance is disrupted or broken in some way, which leads to a liminal period or period of disruption. This second stage typically takes up the majority of a narrative. Finally, a typical narrative will conclude with a partial restoration of the equilibrium or new equilibrium, which will see the world of the narrative return to some sense of normality.
• Therefore, Todorov suggests that narratives move from one state of equilibrium to another, with the majority of a narrative focusing on conflict or imbalance.
• This structure can be summed up as:
• Equilibrium
• Disequilibrium
• Partial restoration of the equilibrium
• All narratives share a basic structure that involves a movement from one state of equilibrium to another
• The idea that these two states of equilibrium are separated by a period of imbalance or disequilibrium
• The way in which narratives are resolved can have particular ideological significance.
3 - Genre theory - Steve Neale
(television)
• Producers rely on audience's desire to see both repetition and difference of genre conventions: seeking out the familiar, while also seeking something vaguely new and different.
• Over time, genres change (generic fluidity), combine with one another (generic hybridity) and form entirely new genres and subgenres
• Genres are useful for producers from an industrial perspective, as they allow for the precise and specific targeting of certain specific audiences.
4 - Structuralism - Claude Lévi-Strauss
(Advertising, music videos, newspapers, television, magazines, online media)
• All media products have an underlying structure, and knowledge of this structure helps us to analyze them.
• One of the fundamental ways that we make sense of not only media products but our lives in general is through the idea of binary oppositions, or two diametrically opposed concepts that end up defining each other (good luck trying to explain to someone the concept of day without using the concept of night!)
• Binary oppositions and the way they are used by producers in narratives demonstrate their ideological significance.
5 - Postmodernism - Jean Baudrillard
(television, online media)
• In postmodern culture the boundaries between the ‘real’ world and the world of the media have collapsed and that it is no longer possible to distinguish between what is reality and what is simulation. In fact, it really doesn't matter which is which!
• Therefore, in this postmodern age of simulacra, audiences are constantly bombarded with images which no longer refer to anything ‘real’
• Because of this, we are now in a situation that media images have come to seem more ‘real’ than the reality they supposedly represent. This concept is referred to as 'hyperreality'.
6 - Theories of representation - Stuart Hall
(advertising, music videos, newspapers, television, online media)
• Representations are constructed through media language, and reflect the ideological perspective of the producer
• The relationship between concepts and signs is governed by codes
• Stereotyping, as a form of representation, reduces people to a few simple characteristics or traits. However, stereotyping is useful, as it allows producers to easily construct media products, and audiences to easily decode them.
• Stereotyping tends to occur where there are inequalities of power, as subordinate or excluded groups are constructed as different or ‘other’ (e.g. through ethnocentrism).
7 - Theories of identity - David Gauntlett
(advertising, music videos, magazines, online media)
• Audiences are not passive, and media products allow the audience to construct their own identities
• Audiences can pick and mix which ideologies suit them, and completely ignore the elements of the product which they do not agree with in a process of negotiation similar to the one suggested by Stuart Hall.
8 - Feminist theory - Liesbet van Zoonen
(advertising, music videos, television, magazines)
• Gender is constructed through codes and conventions of media products, and the idea of what is male and what is female changes over time
• Women’s bodies are used in media products as a spectacle for heterosexual male audiences, which reinforces patriarchal hegemony.
9 - Theories of gender performativity - Judith Butler
(television, magazines, online)
• Identity is a performance, and it is constructed through a series of acts and 'expressions' that we perform every day.
• While there are biological differences dictated by sex, our gender is defined through this series of acts. These may include the ways we walk, talk, dress, and so on
• Therefore, there is no gender identity behind these expressions of gender
• Gender performativity is not a singular act, but a repetition and a ritual. It is outlined and reinforced through dominant patriarchal ideologies.
10 - Theories around ethnicity and postcolonial theory - Paul Gilroy
(advertising, music videos, online media)
• Postcolonialism is the study of the impact that being under direct rule has had on former colonies. For example, despite being a tiny island, Britain colonized and declared ownership of many countries, including India and Australia.
• These ideas and attitudes continue to shape contemporary attitudes to race and ethnicity in the postcolonial era
• These postcolonial attitudes have constructed racial hierarchies in our society, where, for example, white people are by and large given more positive and important roles than BME people
• Media producers are also guilty of using binary oppositions to reinforce BME people and characters as 'others'.
Conclusion
So, as a whole researching media theories has helped further my understanding on the media industry and how different theories impact peoples thoughts and feelings. This will help me when creating my documentary because I now know about different media theories, so I can properly implement them into my product for example semiotics. I will take this information onboard with me because it is very helpful. I also believe these theories will directly impact the type of audience that will like and enjoy your content, such as old people/young people etc. Uses and Gratification theory applies to my documentary because people will watch my documentary to learn more about content creation in Sunderland, as well as further their understanding on the area. Theories of representation also links to my product because Sunderland culture links to local identity and representation, which will be expressed in my documentary. As well as this, theories of ethnicity also links to Sunderland Culture for the similar reasons, just this theory links more to religion and lifestyle. Theory of identity will also fit into my documentary because my documentary will get you to consider your local identity, and whether or not it restricts or enhances your creativity. Due to my documentary being about content creation Postmodernism also ties into my idea because I will talk about social media within the area and common misconceptions about Sunderland.
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